All Things Beautiful: Physics/Physical Science

Showing posts with label Physics/Physical Science. Show all posts

The Energy Can

For science this week, James went back to his physical science study of roller coasters by making this Energy Can and Quentin went back to where we left off in human biology, with the lymphatic system.

James' Energy Can demonstrates stored and kinetic energy. If you are interested in doing James' project, you will need:

an empty coffee can (1-lb. and 5'' diameter w/plastic lid)

Fishing sinker (1 oz.)

Hammer

1-2 Long Rubber-bands (6'')

2 paper-clips

nail

With a hammer and nail, punch one hole through the bottom of the can and one in the center of the plastic lid.

Thread the paper-clip onto one end of the rubber-band. Then thread the other end of the rubber-band through the hole in the bottom of your can. The clip should be on the outside of the can.

Slide the sinker onto the middle of the rubber-band.

Thread the free end of the rubber-band through the hole in the lid.

Attach the paper-clip to the rubber-band on the plastic lid so the band won't slip into the can.

Place the plastic lid tightly onto the end of the can.
Now you can explore potential and kinetic energy with this toy. Keep in mind the mathematical formula:

Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy = Total Energy

Can you predict where the potential energy is going to be the highest? Where is the kinetic energy going to be the highest?

Once you have made your predictions, push the Energy Can slowly across a smooth floor, and watch it travel until it stops by itself. Now, push it rapidly across the floor and watch it until it stops.

What did the Energy Can do when pushed slowly?

What did the Energy Can do when pushed rapidly?

How is the behavior of the Energy Can different from an ordinary can?

What conclusions can you make?

Why do you think the Energy Can acts differently from an ordinary can?

Where was potential energy the highest? Why?

Where was the kinetic energy the highest? Why?

Where is the potential energy the highest on a roller coaster?

Where is the kinetic energy the highest on a roller coaster?

As the Energy Can travels, some of its kinetic energy is changed to thermal (heat) energy in the form of friction. The thermal energy is waster kinetic energy. It does not help the Energy Can move so the can slows down. The potential energy was highest at the point where the Energy Can stopped moving away from you after the first push because that is where the most energy was stored inside it. Later trips lose more and more kinetic energy to friction, so it cannot build up as much potential energy.

The same thing happens with a roller coaster. As the coaster train is towed by electrical energy to the top of the first hill, the train gathers potential energy. The top of the first hill is where the train has the most potential energy. As the train travels to the bottom of the first hill, this potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. The bottom of the first hill is where the kinetic energy is the highest. The total potential and kinetic energy can never be more that what the electrical energy gave the train. In addition, friction converts some of the kinetic energy into thermal energy instead of movement, wasting some of the kinetic energy.

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form. How does this apply to the Energy Can or roller coasters? As we learned in Newton's First Law of Motion, the roller coaster cars will continue to move until another force, in this case friction (wheels on the track and the coaster's brakes), acts upon them.

Elementary and Middle School Physical Science: Mechanics in Motion: Newton's First Law of Motion {Inertia}

Newton's First Law of Motion is the law of inertia, or the fact that something at rest prefers to stay at rest unless something forces it to move, and something in motion prefers to stay in motion unless something forces it to stop moving.

Inertia Demonstration 1

Stack 5 pennies in a neat stack on a table. Lay another penny on the table near the stack. With a lot of force, slide the penny into the stack.

Only the bottom coin of the stack should have moved. It was forced to move by the moving penny which hit it. The other coins resisted movement because they prefer to stay at rest.

Inertia Demonstration 2

Place a glass of water on a table and place an index card on top of the glass of water. Next, carefully place a stack of 5 pennies on top of the index card. Now, yank the card out.

Did you notice the stack of coins was suspended in midair for a moment? That is inertia.

Now, set up the experiment again, but this time grasp the card with your fingers and slowly put it away from the glass, keeping the card level as you pull it away.

This time the coins should have traveled with the card instead of falling into the glass. The coin had a certain amount of inertia sitting at rest. In order to overcome this inertia, a strong enough force would have to be applied. In the first part of this demonstration, friction was not allowed to work long enough to overcome the coin's inertia, so the coin did not move with the card. In the second part of the demonstration, however, friction was allowed to work long enough to overcome the coin's inertia and the coin moved with the card.*

sources and resources:

Exploring Creation with Chemistry and Physics, Jeannie Fulbright
Exploring Creation with Physical Science, Jay Wile*

Elementary Physical Science (Grades 1-4)

Weeks 1-4: Simple Machines: There are six simple machines. Compound machines are made up of two or more simple machines.

Copywork: Machines are designed to make work easier for people. People use simple and complex machines all the time. All machines require a force to move. Force may be a push or a pull. The force may come from gravity, human effort or electrical energy.
Vocabulary words: work, force, effort, fulcrum, energy, load, simple machines, compound machines
Read about Sir Isaac Newton and gravity.
Drop unbreakable objects of varying sizes and observe how they move. Add other forces and predict how the movement will change.
Ask the student to hypothesize how to measure the amount of force it takes to move an object. Have him collect a variety of objects and arrange them in order according to how much force it will take to move them. Then have him measure each object to see if his order was correct.
Friction is a force that acts against or resists motion. Discuss some of the sources of friction such as brakes, rubbing on carpeting, and rough surfaces. Have your student roll a variety of objects on a smooth surface and then a carpet or rough surface and then write an explanation telling why the objects acted differently on the two surfaces.
Explore the concept of inertia. What happens when you hit the brakes suddenly? Why does your body continue to move forward? Discuss other occasions when an object tends to continue what it is already doing.

Weeks 5-8: Levers: A hammer can be used as a kind of lever. This type of machine helps to move things with less force.

Simple Machines: Levers
A first class lever has the fulcrum between the effort and the load. Give the student a ruler and a thread spool or pencil. Set them up to look like a lever. have the student identify the fulcurm (spool or pencil). Place a load such as a rock or some quarters on one end of the lever. Ask him to push on the lever to lift the load. Have him identify the force (student). Have him record all observations in his science notebook.
Have student experiment with moving the fulcrum by moving it into different positions under the ruler and have him describe the effect that has on the amount of effort needed to perform the work. Have him record each movement in his science notebook. Have him write the conclusion once he reaches it: The closer the fulcrum is to the load, the less effort is needed to lift the load.
Go to the playground and experiment with the student on moving the force to lift the load. You sit on one end of the seasaw. The student should have difficulty lifting you into the air. Have the student experiment with where he can place his body on the other end of the seesaw to make the work the easiest.
A second class lever has the load between the force and the fulcrum. Use a wheelbarrow to illustrate a second class lever. Fill it with a load. Have the student draw a picture of himself pushing the wheelbarrow and label the fulcrum, force and load.
A third class lever has the force between the fulcrum and the load. Have the student sweep the floor with a broom. The broom is a lever. Have him analyze what are the fulcrum (top arm and body), force (bottom arm) and load (dust). Have him draw himself sweeping and label the parts of this lever.
Have student identify/draw examples of first, second and third class levers.
Have the student gather a variety of tools (hammer, crowbar, bottle opener, dolly, suitcase on wheels, etc.) and have him categorize them into first, second and third class levers.

Weeks 9-11: Wheels

Wheel
Go on a wheel walk and have student either sketch or take photos of the various wheels he sees.
Demonstrate how wheels can make work easier. Have the student pull a wagon across grass upside down.
Have the student roll a marble across an uncarpeted floor. Ask the student measure and record in his science journal how far the marble moved with a single push. Have the student propose what caused the marble to stop. Discuss friction. How are marbles like wheels?
When combined with an axle, the wheel makes work easier. Use a plastic lid from a coffee can to make a simple wheel and axle. Poke a pencil through the center of the lid. Hold both sides of the pencil and rotate the lid across the floor. Have the student draw the wheel and axle. Can your student build other wheels and axles with the things around the house?
Explore wheels around the house. Allow the student to take some of them apart and explore how a wheel and axle work together. Gears are wheels with teeth. The teeth allow one gear to turn another gear, Have the student explore and draw gears, analyzing how they make work easier.

Weeks 12-14: Pulleys: A pulley can be used to lift loads more easily, such as to hoist a flag or sail.

Show the student several pulleys. Teach the student to name the parts of a pulley (wheel, axle, frame and rope). A pulley and rope work together to make work easier. Have student sketch pulleys in his science journal and label the parts.
With the student, build a pulley system in a tree or tree-house in the backyard or with a board over the backs of two chairs, if you want to do it inside. Attach something heavy for the student to lift to one end of the rope. If nothing else comes to mind, you can use a gallon milk carton filled with sand. Have the student sketch the set up in his science journal. Ask the student to lift the weight without using the pulley. Then use the pulley and compare the perceived amount of work.
Have the student experiment with pulley arrangements. Help him set up a movable pulley. Have him sketch this arrangement in his science journal. Ask him to compare the two pulley arrangements. Have the student compare the differences between the movable and stationary pulley systems.
Have the student set up a double pulley system. Have him experiment with and then sketch the double pulley system. He should note in his journal in some way that the more pulleys combined, the less force is needed to lift a weight.
Field Trip: Have your student speculate how materials might be lifted to workers building a 20-story structure. If possible, visit a construction site where steel beams or concrete is being lifted using pulleys.

Weeks 15-18: Inclined Planes: A ramp up to a building is an example of an inclined plane. This type of simple machine can be used to move things from a lower place to a higher place, and vice versa.

Inclined Plane and Wedge
Set up a simple ramp with a stack of books and a board. Place an object at the top of the ramp and let go. Have the student observe this and other objects as they move down the ramp. Ask the student, "What is causing the objects to move? What is creating the pull or push? If the student doesn't mention gravity, you might bring it up as a force pulling objects toward earth.
Have the student try to lift a box filled with books onto a table or chair. Have the student push the box of books up a ramp. Discuss the difference in the amount of force required to move the box with and without the ramp. Discuss how the ramp actually requires you to move the box a longer distance but with less force.
Conduct an experiment to show mechanical advantage. Tie one end of a short string to a toy truck and the other end to a rubber band. Measure the length of the string and rubber band without stretching the rubber band. Then, lift the truck straight up by hold the rubber band. Hold a ruler up to the rubber band and let the student read how many inches it is stretched. Have the student sketch the set-up. Next lean a board against a shoebox and pull the truck up the ramp. Compare the amount the rubber band stretched by measuring it as before. Help the student write a conclusion i n his science journal about the fact that using less force by sing the ramp and tell him this is called Mechanical Advantage. Include this in the student's science journal.
Give the student a 3' long board and a 6' long board. Have him lean them both against the same shoebox and compare the angles of the slope. Ask him to predict which ramp the truck will move up with the least amount of force. Have him conduct an experiment testing his hypothesis.
Have the student explore gravity and friction. Have him predict what will happen when he puts the truck and then a flat object at the top of a ramp and then carry out the experiment. Discuss what happened and why. What part did wheels play in reducing friction?
In his science journal have your student draw a sketch of a mountain with a flag on top and a person standing at the bottom. Ask the student to draw a path from the person to the top, and then ask him how a person might feel after walking straight up a mountain. Next, ask the student to draw a path that would require less effort but would cover more distance. Guide him in drawing a path that zig-zags up the mountain. This back and forth movement of the road up a mountain is a series of inclined planes. Draw another mountain with a road spiraling around from top to bottom and make note of the fact that this inclined plane is like a screw. Field Trip: If the opportunity is possible, go on a trip up a mountain road so that he can see how roads are built to lessen the force needed to get an automobile up them. Or, go on a hike up a mountain or steep him and have the student go straight up the slope and then try walking back and forth. He should be able to feel the difference in the amount of effort required.
A screw is used to hold things together. Have the student put a fingernail in the groove at the tip of the screw and turn the screw. He should notice that the fingernail travels up the screw like the car up a mountain. The screw is also an inclined plane. Have some scrap wood and some screws available for him to work with. Make note of the fact that small bits of wood travel up the threads of the screw as it enters the wood.
Have your student observe a staircase and ask him to compare the stairs to an inclined plane. Notice that it is a ramp angle with steps up into it.

Weeks 19-21: Wedges and Review

Allow the student to work with and observe the jobs of different wedges. Gather together a pin or nail, an axe, scissors, cookie cutter and a door wedge, Some wedges join things together. Some wedges split things apart. A wedge may raise and hold something in place. In order to use a wedge, a lever must almost always be present. The lever guides the wedge. Have your student identify the levers in the wedges you presented him (the handle of the axe, the parts of the scissors, etc.) Have your student notice when observing the axe that the two parts of the cut material move up the sides of the wedge along inclined planes. Note that a wedge is another type of inclined plane. Have the student sketch a variety of wedges in his science journal and explain how each one works.
You can discuss the wedge's role in history. Demonstrate this by having the student imagine how people long ago moved a huge boulder or block of stone. This fits in especially well with Ancient Egyptian pyramid study. Have him discover how a wedge can be placed under the object to be move. Discuss how the angle of the wedge raises the boulder off the ground so it can be rolled or slid onto a card and carried away.
Field Trip: Arrange for a tour of a factory with large machines and conveyer belts. Have the student look out for examples of each of the six simple machines with in the complex machinery. Have the student write about his visit to the factory, including some sketches of the machines he saw, labeling the simple machines within them.
Pull out several examples of simple machines around your house such as a can opener, a drill, a corkscrew, a hammer, a screwdriver and a knife. You could also have pictures of things too large to put on a table such as a crane, a steering wheel and a dolly. Have him sort them by the type of simple machine they fit best.

Week 22: Simple Machines Test Questions

Have your student sketch a picture of each of the six simple machines in his science journal. Based on the drawings, assess whether the concept needs review.
Have your student design in his science journal a compound machine that performs a useful task. Have him label each simple machine in the drawing.

Weeks 23-27: Electricity

Read and learn how an electric charge (static and current) occurs.They are both made up of the same particles, but static electricity does not move like current electricity. Static electricity is not used as a source of power. Positively and negatively charged particles crackle harmlessly when you walk across a carper or comb your hair on a dry day.
Here is a demonstration involving static electricity called Dancing Parsley. Have your student put one pinch of parsley flakes in a Styrofoam cup. Rub the cup against his hair or a piece of wool. Rub in only one direction about 30 times. Have your student look inside the cup, and sketch in his science journal what he sees.
Unpeppering the Salt: Another fun demonstration can be done by putting about a teaspoon of salt and a pinch of pepper on a piece of paper, mixing them together. Have your student comb his hair about 20-30 times and then hold the comb over the salt and pepper mix. Try using a brush instead of a comb. Did more pepper jump onto the comb or the brush? How high can you make the pepper jump?
Copywork: A battery provides a source of electricity and wire conducts electricity. The three parts of an electric circuit are the source, the conductor and the use, such as light bulb. Electric current conveys energy from one point to another.
Go to the library and get out books on Thomas Edison, Benjamin Franklin, Andre Marie Ampere, Michael Faraday, Hans Oersted, Samuel Morse, Alessandro Volta. Have your student pick one and write about them in his science journal
The electricity that powers things in our homes is called current electricity. Discuss how life would be different without electricity. Try going through some part of the day without electricity or recall a day when the electricity went out due to weather or some other circumstance.
An electric current is the movement of particles, called electrons. In order to have electrical energy, the electrons must flow in an uninterrupted loop, called an electrical circuit. To make a complete circuit, you will need a size C battery for the electrical source, a 6" piece of insulated wire and a flashlight bulb. Strip an inch of the plastic coating off each end of a 6" wire using sandpaper. To do this, bend a piece of sandpaper over the last inch of the wire and twist and pull as you hold the sandpaper between thumb and forefinger. Place one bare end of the wire on the bottom of the battery. Place the base of the bulb on the top center of the battery. Touch the other bare end of the wire to the brass of the bulb. This will make a complete circuit. Have your student explore different arrangements of the three parts of the circuit and sketch his discoveries in his science journal.
A conductor is anything an electric current can flow through Using a variety of household items (such as a key, pencil, fork, nail, button, eraser and mirror), have the student predict which will be the best conductors of electricity. Have him then test each object by placing the objects one at a time between the bulb and the battery to see if it will conduct the electricity and still complete the circuit.
When a complete circuit is closed, the bulb lights. The switch in a light switch can interrupt the flow of electrons by separating conductors somewhere in a closed circuit.
Read about lightning and safety. How can you avoid being a conductor for lightning?

Weeks 28-34: Weather

Help your student make a weather station and then learn to use it. This should take several days.
Have your student make a line graph showing the changes in temperature over several days.
Have your student brainstorm the ways weather affects different people. What jobs depend on certain weather? How does weather affect feelings? For what reasons do people listen to or read weather forecasts? Why do people talk about the weather? Ask your student how the weather affects him.
Have your student research how weather develops. In what part of the atmosphere does it develop? How many miles above the earth is weather formed? Why is it not made further away than that? What four conditions are necessary tor making weather?
Teach the student about the atmosphere and heating the air.
Teach the student about air pressure and moving air. Ask the student to look at the barometer readings over the past week and record them in his science journal.
Wind direction is affected by the turning of the earth. Read about prevailing and trade winds.
Field Trip: Arrange for the student to go to a local television station, airport or newspaper office to meet with a meteorologist. Discuss the information learned from the meteorologist and have the student write a thank you note to the meteorologist.
Write a job description for a meteorologist.
Copywork: Weather is determined by the factors of temperature, wind, air pressure and moisture.
Explore the importance of moisture in weather.
Using the temperature data your student has collected, have him make a line graph showing the changes in temperature over several weeks.
Discuss the difference between weather and climate. Compare the climate where you live to other climates. Explore whether longitude makes a difference in climate.
Save the newspaper weather maps from several consecutive days. Write the date on each map. Have your student compare the information with his weather charts from the same days. Compare the accuracy of the forecasts and actual weather.
Observe the weather maps to learn how fronts affect weather.
Draw diagrams to explain cold fronts and warm fronts.
Have the student watch a television weather report and compare it with that day's newspaper weather report. Discuss the similarities and differences in the information and the means of reporting.
Make a weather map and predict the weather.

Weeks 35-40: Clouds

Teach about different types of clouds. Clouds form differently at different heights and temperatures. On a blue piece of poster board paste cotton balls to resemble the different types of clouds to make a chart.
Go outside and observe clouds.
Have your student draw the water cycle. Have the student draw a picture of a landscape. Tell him to draw clouds in the sky. Have him draw arrows coming up from the lakes and rices as well as the ground and trees to show that water evaporates from many places. Have him draw arrows coming down from the clouds.
Nature Study: Have the student observe and draw cloud shapes and movements.
Have the student read to learn how clouds are formed. Discuss the information as he narrates back to you what he has learned.
Learn the names of clouds and where they form. Read to learn how weather prediction is related to clouds.
Have your student explain in his science journal why a cloudy day may be cool, but a cloudy night may be warm.
Draw and label a cloud diagram that show the different types of clouds and where they form (altitude).
Read about storms and weather extremes: thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes,floods, heat waves and others. What are the positive effects of such weather?
Many famous scientists have had an impact on the science of weather forecasting. Read about the weather related work of Galileo, Edmund Halley, Samuel Morse, Vilhelm Bjerknes, John von Neumann and others.

Preschool Physical Science (grades Pre-school-Kindergarten)

Week 1: Water Cycle

Review evaporation and explore the evidence of condensation. Put ice water in a jar. Add food coloring and put the cover on. Ask your student to observe the jar for changes. Ask him to propose from where the water drops on the outside of the jar came. Remind the student that heat made liquid water turn into a gas. The water as gas was still present in the air. Now the cold water cooled the water in the air and made it condense into its liquid form.
Fill a wide-mouth jar half-way with boiling water. Tell the student to quickly put the lid upside-down on top of the jar and place a bag of ice cubes on top of the lid. Clouds should soon be visible. Guide the student to get the connection between how ice cubes affect water its gaseous form and the formation of real clouds. If the clouds are not visible, sprinkle some fine particles of chalk dust in the jar and quickly put the lid back in place. Turn the lights off and shine a flashlight in the jar. The droplets of water should stick to the chalk dust particles just as they do in a cloud. Have the student draw a picture of the demonstration and describe his observations.
Demonstrate precipitation. A day in advance, put a large metal spoon in the freezer. Heat a pan of water on the stove. Ask your student to describe what happens to the water when it is heated. Have your student predict what will happen when the cold spoon is held over the evaporated water. Complete the demonstration, observing the condensation. Have your student write and draw in his science journal.
On a sunny day, put a clean jar upside-down on the grass. Observe the jar and draw a picture. Return to the jar in two hours and have him propose from where the water in the jar came in his science journal

Week 2: What is Astronomy?

Obtain some resources about astronomy. (A good resource is chapter 2 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)
Read about astronomy and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.
Earth, Moon and Stars, Activity 1: Ancient Models of the Earth
Make a model of the solar system. The Solar System: Model
Read about Galileo Have your student write about his contribution to astronomy in his science journal
Have your student sketch and label the solar system in his science journal.

Weeks 3: The Sun

Obtain some resources about the sun. (A good resource is chapter 2 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)
Read about the sun and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.
Solar Power: Make a s'mores oven to capture the sun's energy.
Make a solar eclipse model.
Make a pinhole viewing box.

Week 4: Mercury

Obtain some resources about the Mercury. (A good resource is chapter 3 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)
Read about the sun and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Weeks 5: Venus

Obtain some resources about the Venus. (A good resource is chapter 4 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the Venus and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

How Radar Works

Weeks 6-7: Earth

Obtain some resources about the earth. (A good resource is chapter 5 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the earth and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Earth Moon and Stars, Activity 2: The Earth's Shape and Gravity

Pangaea is the name given to the original land mass that eventually became the seven continents that we know today. Read about Pangaea in library resources or textbooks. Pangaea Puzzle (Copy a map of the world and have them cut out the continents and then put them together like a puzzle. We glued ours as it fit together to a piece of paper.) or, you could do a cookie project found at Almost Unschoolers.

Study and discuss the earth's moving plates.

Study and discuss the composition of the earth's layers. Make an edible model of the Layers of the Earth.

Discuss what makes the earth unique among the planets.

Using library resources and textbooks, read about the spinning earth and the earth's rotation around the sun. Demonstrate the movement with a flashlight and a ball.

Make a sundial to observe the movement of the earth. The position of the sun in relation to the earth casts a rotating shadow off the sundial.

Using library resources and textbooks, read about the seasons and their relationship to the tilt of the earth. Demonstrate the changes with a flashlight and a ball or piece of fruit.

Weeks 8: The Moon

Obtain some resources about our moon. (A good resource is chapter 6 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Make Moon Craters.

Read about the moon and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Weeks 9: Mars

Obtain some resources about the mars. (A good resource is chapter 7 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about mars and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Dry Ice Investigations

Weeks 10: Space Rocks: Comets, Asteroids and Meteors

Obtain some resources about the space rocks. (A good resource is chapter 8 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the space rocks and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Make comets using a snow cone maker to shave the ice. Pack the ice together around a thin dowel to form the ice core and give the student a handle to hold onto. Have your student roll it in sand to get the outer dust and add a piece of streamer to represent the tail. Take them outside to fly and melt.

Make an asteroid treat by making rice krispie treat balls and then covering them with chocolate. Roll in peanuts to represent the bits of rock and sprinkles to represent other debris.

Weeks 11: Jupiter

Obtain some resources about the Jupiter. (A good resource is chapter 9 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about Jupiter and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Learn about the Moons of Jupiter and how they were discovered.

Weeks 12: Saturn

Obtain some resources about the Saturn. (A good resource is chapter 10 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the Saturn and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Weeks 13: Uranus

Obtain some resources about the Uranus. (A good resource is chapter 11 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the Uranus and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Week 14: Neptune

Obtain some resources about the Neptune. (A good resource is chapter 11 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the Neptune and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Week 15: Pluto

Obtain some resources about Pluto. (A good resource is chapter 12 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the Pluto and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Week 16: The Kuiper Belt

Obtain some resources about the Kuiper Belt. (A good resource is chapter 12 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the the Kuiper Belt and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Weeks 17-18 Stars and Galaxies

Obtain some resources about the stars and galaxies. (A good resource is chapter 13 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the stars and galaxies and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

The Two Dippers

Weeks 19-20: Space Travel

Obtain some resources about the space travel. (A good resource is chapter 14 of Exploring Creation with Astronomy by Jeannie Fulbright, or you can get books from the library on the subject.)

Read about the sun and have your student tell you about what he has learned while you record it in his science journal. Have him illustrate the narrative.

Weeks 21 and 22: Rocks

Go for a walk with the student and find a large rock. Guide the student to speculate about how that rock got to where it is. Encourage the student to become aware of all rocks, large and small, and think about the rock's origin.
Collect rocks wherever you go. Try to gather a large variety. Look around lakes, rivers, in the woods and along country roads. Wash and sort them by color. Try to get a wide variety, but if you have a lot of trouble with this, you can buy collections of varieties of rocks.
Select a rock in your mind from the collection. Describe the rock to the student, including a feature that none of the other rocks have. Ask him to pick out which one you are describing. Take turns playing this game as long as the student is interested.
Draw a large Venn diagram on the sidewalk or patio with sidewalk chalk or on a large piece of paper. Using your collection, pick out a dozen or so rocks of different colors, shapes, textures and sizes. Choose two adjectives from the descriptions that were made last time, and write them above the two circles of the Venn diagram. Have the student sort the rocks into the two circles. If the rock meets both criteria, have the student put it into the area in which the circles intersect.
Choose two different adjectives and sort them again. Do this as long as it interests the student.
Briefly define and show examples of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Give the student a piece of pumice to observe. Pumice is an igneous rock. It forms when lave is frothy and bubbly with gases. Give the student a bowl of water and have him discover a property of pumice.
Study the three types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) and how they are formed.
Sedimentary Rocks: Demonstrate How Sedimentary Rocks Are Made and have your student sketch a picture for his science journal about it.
Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic Rocks change from one form to another through Earth's heat and pressure. To demonstrate how heat and pressure can make substances change form, it is fun to make these Metamorphic Bar cookies.
Field Trip: Visit a rock shop and explore the variety of rocks and minerals formed by the earth Ask for help in identifying which rocks are igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. Start a rock collection, sorting and labeling the rocks as you obtain them.

Weeks 23 and 24: Minerals and Rocks

To identify minerals, a geologist will rub a rock on a square of unglazed tile. The color of the streak may help to determine the minerals present. Have your student try this.
A mineralogist by the name of Fredrich Mohs made up a hardness scale of minerals. The scale lists ten minerals from the softest to the hardest and is used to help identify minerals. Make three columns in his science journal and label them Soft, Medium and Hard at the top, Have your student use a fingernail (soft), a penny (medium) and a steel penknife (hard) to scratch the rock to determine what column the rock goes in. If nothing marred a rock, it can be considered very hard and placed in the hard column.
Organize your rock collection. Sort your rocks into egg cartons or other sorting boxes. Write a number inside each section. On a page of your science journal write the corresponding numbers with a description of the rock in that cup. Refer to a book with colored pictures to help you identify the rocks.
(math) Let your student feel how heavy one-gram is, then have him pick up each rock in his collection and estimate if it weights less, the same or more than one gram, and sort them into the three different piles. Using a balance scale, have him then weigh each stone to see if his estimates were correct. Add the correct weights to his science journal.
Measure the size of the rocks in your collection by placing each rock next to a centimeter ruler. To measure circumference, wrap a string around the rock, then measure the string against a centimeter ruler.
Field Trip: Visit a rock shop. Browse the variety of rocks and minerals they have. The student could possibly purchase some rocks to add to his collection. The salesperson might also know about good places to go rock hunting in the area.

Weeks 25 and 26: Conservation and Erosion

Discuss the importance of conservation so as to lessen the negative impact of humans on the earth. Ask the student to design and carry out an effort to recycle a material that is not currently being recycled in your home.
Geologists determine the composition of the soil in an area by taking "core samples" with a special drill. Simulate a Core Sampling using a cupcake and a straw.
Have the student predict what will happen when you rub two sandstone rocks together. Have your student write in his science journal his hypothesis, and then have him rub the rocks together over a piece of paper. Observe the particles of sand that are rubbed off. Have the student draw and describe in his science journal what happened. Ask him to think of something in nature that would cause the same effect.
Have him do the same thing he did last time except using two hard rocks. Tell him that if two hard rocks such as these rub against each other over a really long period of time, there would be wearing away, but it can't be seen in this sampling.
Take a piece of limestone and let your student observe it. Have him draw the rock in his science journal and make a hypothesis about what will happen when you tap it with a hammer. Wrap the rock in a rag and hit it with a hammer. Observe the debris left from the rock. Ask your student to think of something in nature that would cause the same effect (earthquakes, freezing and thawing, roots from plants, etc.)
Make different colored sand by adding food coloring to white sand in separate containers. Give the student a small glass bottle with a lid. Have him fill it with layers of colored sand to make a stratification bottle. Get books from the library and research the Grand Canyon. Compare the layers of stratification in the bottle with the layers in the Grand Canyon.
Vocabulary: Erosion
Mix 1 cup of sand, 1/2 cup water and 1/2 cup plaster of Paris in a large paper cup. Allow the mixture to thaw overnight. Peel off the paper cup. Put the artificial sandstone outside where it will be exposed to the weather. Once a week, have your student sketch the artificial sandstone over the next few months.
Observe a smooth rock taken from the shore of a lake, bay or ocean. Have your student make a guess about what might have caused the rock to be so smooth. Read about how the Grand Canyon was formed.
Field Trip: Walk in an area known to have a lot of rock cover. Have your student take his journal and draw evidence of rock erosion and different rocks and write a short explanation of each.

Weeks 27 and 28: Fossils

Make a Fossil Find activity using fossils that you have bought, sand and a screen box.
Amber was made from tree sap that hardened. Sometimes insects got caught in the sap as it flowed down the tree, and the insect was then fossilized in the amber. You can simulate Fossilized Insects in "Amber" by putting plastic spiders or insects in amber colored glycerin soap.
Trace Fossil Model Trace fossils record the activities of an animal such as a burrow trail or track left behind by an animal. These fossils can give paleontologists information about habitats and living habits of animals. Help your student make a model of these type fossils, take a cup of damp sand and press a pencil into it, leaving a hole or burrow. Next, pour some Plaster of Paris that you have mixed up in roughly a mix of 2 parts Plaster of Paris to 1 part water. Let sit until it has hardened (about an hour or so.) Dump the wet sand into a larger container and have a mini "fossil" dig!
A mold fossil is the indentation or impression left in rock by the remains of a plant or animal. If mineral and rock materials fill the indentation, a cast fossil is formed. Make a Cast and Mold Fossil Model by using Plaster of Paris to represent the mineral and rock materials. First you have to make the impression. Take a shell and press it into clay firmly and then take it out of the clay, leaving an impression of the shell. Fill the impression with Plaster of Paris and let sit to harden (about an hour.) Once hard, bend the clay back until the cast pops out of the clay. Have your student compare the original shell to the cast.
Fossil Footprints Most sedimentary rock forms under water. Sediment, or pebbles, sand, clay and plankton (bodies of tiny dead animals and plants), is slowly buried by more sediment piling on top. Over a long period of time, as the pile gets heavier and heavier, the particles near the bottom are squeezed closer and closer together. Groundwater brings new minerals that cement the particles together to form sedimentary rock. If the sediment is mainly sand, it will change into sandstone. If the sediment is mostly clay, it will form shale. If the sediment contains mainly plankton, it will turn into limestone. To simulate but speed up this process, infuse some sand with the minerals (Epsom
Salt) to cement the particles of sand together. To show how dinosaur footprints are sometimes left in rock, press a toy dinosaur's foot into the wet sand to make an imprint. Let this dry out over several days and you will have a model of sandstone with a dinosaur footprint in it.
Make a model of a Limestone Cave.

Week 29: Magnet Explorations

Follow the section on magnets in the Handbook of Nature Study , taking one section of questions each day.

Week 30: Review and Testing

Assess the student's knowledge of earth changes. Have the student name some ways that the earth changes.
Have the student explain, with a diagram, how either a volcano or an earthquake uses force from within the earth to cause changes.

What Your Students Need to Know Before High School: Physics

You can use any of a variety of science curriculum, or you can just do explorations and experiments that interest your students, but usually at some point homeschool teachers wonder if they have done enough. This often happens as you begin to think about the transition into high school. So, what do students need to know before they begin high school level physics?